Traditions & Folklore

The Stories

Romanians have had, from time immemorial, a myriad of customs, tales and poems about love, faith, kings, princesses, and witches. Ethnologists, poets, writers and historians have tried in recent centuries to collect and to preserve tales, poems, ballads and have tried to describe as well as possible the customs and habits related to different events and times of year.

Customs related to certain times of year are the colinde - Romanian Christmas carols, sorcova on New Year's Eve or the Mărţişor custom on the 1st of March marking the spring. Other customs are presumably of pre-Christian pagan origin, like the Paparuda rain enchanting custom in the summer, or the masked folk theatre or Ursul (the bear) and Capra (the goat) in winter.

Putting the Pen to Paper

The Boys wth the Golden Stars

A herdsman had three daughters, and the youngest was the most beautiful. One day, the emperor rode by with attendants. The oldest said that if one married her, she would bake him a loaf of bread that would make him young and brave forever; the second, if one married her, she would make him a shirt that would protect him from any fight, even with a dragon, and against heat and water; the youngest, that she would bear twin sons with stars in their foreheads. The emperor married the youngest, and two of his friends the other two. The emperor's stepmother had wanted him to marry her daughter and so hated his new wife. She got her brother to declare war on him, to get him away from her, and when the empress gave birth in his absence, took away the twins, buried them in the corner of the garden, and put puppies in their place. The emperor had to punish her to show what happened to those who deceived the emperor. Two aspens grew from the grave, putting on years' growth in hours. The stepmother wanted to chop them down, but the emperor forbade it for a long time. Finally, she succeeded, on the condition that she had beds made from the wood, one for him and one for her. In the night, the beds began to talk to each other. The stepmother had two new beds made, identical, and burned the beds to ash. While they were burning, the two brightest sparks flew off and fell into the river. They became two golden fish. When the fishermen caught them, they wanted to take them alive to the emperor. The fish told them to instead let them swim in dew, and then dry out in the sun. When they did this, the fish were turned back into babies. They grew up in days. Wearing lambskin caps that covered their hair and stars, they went to their father's castle and forced their way in. Despite their refusal to take off their caps, the emperor listened to their story. At the end, they took them off. The emperor executed his stepmother and took back his wife.

The Magical Zmeu This artist, Iulian Tudorica, offers a view of the Zmeu in all men.

Images: Iulian Tudorica

Perhaps the most successful collector of folk tales was the novelist and storyteller Ion Creangă, who, in very picturesque language, shaped into their now-classic form stories like Harap Alb (roughly, "The White Prince") or Fata babei şi fata moşului (roughly, "The old woman's girl and the old man's girl"). Also, the poet Vasile Alecsandri published the most successful version of the ballad Mioriţa (The Little Ewe), a sad, philosophical poem, centred around a simple action: the plot by two shepherds to kill a third shepherd because they envied his wealth.

Another prolific editor of folk tales was Petre Ispirescu, who, in the 19th century published an impressive number of volumes containing a large number of short novels and tales from popular mythology. The main themes feature prince Făt-Frumos (the Romanian "Prince Charming"), the princess Ileana Cosânzeana, the villain or monster Zmeu or Căpcăun, the dragon Balaur or fantastic superbeings like the good Zână and the evil Muma Pădurii.

Căpcăun the Ogre

A Căpcăun in Romanian folkore is an Ogre . The Căpcăun either kidnaps children or young ladies (mostly princesses). It represents evil, as do the Zmeu and the Balaur, among several other negative characters.

Căpcăun appears to have meant "Dog-head" (căp meaning "head", căun meaning "dog") derived from Romanian cap ("head") and câine ("dog") (these words are derived from Latin caput and canis respectively).

Făt-Frumos, Prince Charming

Făt-Frumos (from Romanian făt: son, infant; frumos: beautiful) is a knight hero in Romanian folklore mythology, usually present in fairy tales.  Akin to Prince Charming, he possesses such essential attributes as courage, purity, justness, physical and spiritual strength, cleverness, passion, and unshakable love.

Făt-Frumos also displays some minimal abilities in performing miracles, as well as total commitment to the word given and to the monarch he serves.

Făt-Frumos has to go through tests and obstacles that surmount ordinary man's power. With dignity, he always brings these to a positive resolution. He fights demonic monsters and malevolent characters (zmeu, balaur, Muma Pădurii, etc.). He travels in both "this land" and "the other land" (tarâmul celălalt) on the Calul Năzdrăvan ("The Marvellous Horse"), who also serves as his counsellor.

In his journeys, Făt-Frumos often has to overcome a major dilemma related to the correct route he is to follow, and is bound to decide between two equally nonsensical choices. Asked about the right way, an old woman gives Făt-Frumos an obscure answer: "If you turn right, you will be in sorrow; if you turn left, you will be in sorrow as well".

According to Victor Kernbach, this lose-lose situation evokes the historical condition of the Romanian people whose homeland, the Danubian Principalities, has been constantly crossed and attacked by foreign powers, as the native population was always forced to decide between two equally unfortunate choices: ally with your enemies or fight them.

Făt-Frumos is also a commonplace figure of the Romanian culture and literature. He appears as a character in stories and poems by famous writers, such as Mihai Eminescu, Tudor Arghezi, or Nichita Stănescu. As a symptom of the Romanian people’s self-irony, Făt-Frumos can be encountered even in contemporary Romanian jokes, yet less frequently than Bulă or the political personalities of the moment.

Greaceanu

Hero of the Romanian mythology, Greuceanu is a young brave man somewhat similar to Făt Frumos who finds the Sun and the Moon that have been stolen by zmei (plural of zmeu). After a long fight with the three zmei and their wives, the zmeoaice (plural from zmeoaică), Greuceanu sets the Sun and the Moon free so the people on Earth have light again.

The Zmeu

The Zmeu (plural: zmei, feminine: zmeoaică/zmeoaice) is a fantastic creature of Romanian folklore and Romanian mythology. Sometimes compared to other fantastic creatures, such as the balaur or the "vârcolac", the zmeu is nevertheless distinct, because it usually has clear anthropomorphic traits: it is humanoid and has legs, arms, the ability to create and use artefacts such as the weapons, or the desire to marry young girls.

In some stories, Zmeu appears in the sky and spits fire. In other stories, it has a magical precious stone on its head that shines like the sun. It likes beautiful young girls, whom it kidnaps, usually on the purpose of marrying them. It is almost always defeated by a daring prince or knight-errant.

The "zmeu" figures prominently in many Romanian folk tales as the manifestation of "pagan evil" and the destructive forces of greed and selfishness. Oftentimes, the zmeu steals something of great value, which only Făt-Frumos can retrieve through his great, selfless bravery. For example, in the ballad of the knight Greuceanu, the zmeu steals the sun and the moon from the sky, thereby enshrouding all humanity in darkness.

In the story of "Prâslea the Brave and the Golden Apples", the zmeu robs the king of the precious "golden apples"; a parallel can be drawn to the Eleventh Labour of Hercules, in which Hercules must retrieve the Golden Apples of the Hesperides. Usually, the zmeu resides on the "other side of the world," and sometimes Făt-Frumos has to descend into his dark kingdom, implying that the zmeu lives underground, perhaps in the Underworld.

Versatile and Strong

The zmeu has a plethora of magical, destructive powers at his disposal. He can fly, transform himself into various creatures, and has tremendous supernatural strength. Ultimately, the abilities of the zmeu are of no avail, as Făt-Frumos defeats him through martial skill and daring.

Some English translations refer to the "zmeu" as the ogre or giant from western European mythologies, and there is some truth to such analogies. Like the ogre, the zmeu likes to kidnap a maiden to be his wife in his otherwordly realm. After Făt-Frumos slays the zmeu, he takes the maiden as his bride-to-be. Similarly, like the giant in the popular British stories of "Jack and the Beanstalk", the zmeu returns home to his fortress from his raids into human lands sensing that a human (Făt-Frumos) is lying in ambush somewhere nearby.

As an interesting side-note on the zmeu's ability to fly, in Romanian as in German, Russian, Norwegian and Swedish, the word for dragon also refers to the kites that children fly.

Most scholars agree that Zmeu's name and appearance is derived from the Slavic Zmey. However, the linguist Dr. Sorin Paliga challenges the notion that the Romanian word Zmeu is of Slavic origin, and hypothesizes that the pan-Slavic forms were an early Slavic loan from the Dacian language. The relation with Romanian "zmeură" (raspberry) has been deemed to be possible, but rather unlikely, by Alexandru Ciorănescu.

Balaur the Evil Hydra

In Romanian folkore a balaur is a creature similar to a dragon, although distinct: dragons as such also exist in Romanian folklore.

A balaur is quite large, has fins, feet, and multiple serpent heads (usually three, sometimes seven, or even twelve).

As a traditional character which is found in most Romanian fairy tales, it represents Evil and must be defeated by Făt-Frumos in order to release the Princess (see also Zmeu).

Balaur seems to derive from PIE *bel-, 'strong', or PIE *bhel-, 'to swell'. It is considered to be a pre-Roman word from the Romanian substratum

Vârcolac and Pricolici, the Werewolves

A vârcolac in Romanian folklore may refer to several different figures. In some versions, a vârcolac is a wolf demon. Like the Norse Fenris, the vârcolac can swallow the moon and the sun and is thus responsible for eclipses.

Some legends say it is a ghost or vampire (Strigoi) while others say it is a werewolf, although it can occasionally mean "goblin".   The word vârcolac is a loan from Slavic (cf. Bulgarian varkolak, vulkodlak, Greek vrykolakas), meaning "werewolf" (etymologically "Wolf's Fur").

A Pricolici (same form in plural) is a more definite werewolf in Romanian mythology, whereas the vârcolac can sometimes symbolises a goblin.

Pricolici, like strigoi, are undead souls that have risen from the grave to harm living people.  While a strigoi possesses anthropomorphic qualities similar to the ones it had before death, a pricolici always resembles a wolf or large dog. Malicious, violent men are often said to become pricolici after death, in order to continue harming other humans.

Even as recently as modern times, many people living in rural areas of Romania have claimed to have been viciously attacked by abnormally large and fierce wolves. Apparently, these wolves attack silently, unexpectedly and only solitary targets. Victims of such attacks often claim that their aggressor wasn't an ordinary wolf, but a pricolici who has come back to life to continue wreaking havoc.  See more on Romania's Wolves in our Wildlife Section

The Iele ("Yehleh")

Clear characteristics are hard to assign to these fairies of the wind, but all Romanian's know their powers!  Most of the times they are described as virgin fairies (zane in Romanian), with great seduction power over men, with magic skills, attributes similar to the Ancient Greek Nymphs, Naiads, Dryads, etc.

The Iele live in the sky, in the forests, in caves, on isolated mountain cliffs, in marshes, often bathing in the springs, or at crossroads. From this point of view, the Iele are similar with the Ancient Greek Hecate, a three headed goddess of Thracian origin, which guards the crossroads.

They mostly appear at night, under the moonlight, as dancing Horas, in seclusive areas like glades, the tops of certain trees (maples, walnut trees), ponds, river sides, crossroads or abandoned fireplaces, dancing naked, with their breast almost covered by their disheveled hair, with bells to their ankles, and carrying candles. In almost all of these instances, the Iele appear acorporal.

Rarely, they are dressed in chain mail coats. The effect of their specific dance, the Hora, has similar characteristics with the dances of the Bacchants. The place where they had danced would after remain carbonized, with the grass incapable of growing on the trodden ground, and with the leafs of the surrounding trees scorched. Later, when grass would finally grow, it would have a red or dark-green color, the animals would not eat it, but instead mushrooms would thrive on it. The Iele don’t live a solitary life.

They gather in groups in the air, they can fly with or without wings; they can travel with incredible speeds, either on their own, or with chariots made of fire.

The Iele appear sometimes with bodies, other times only as immaterial spirits. They are young and beautiful, voluptuous, immortals, their frenzy causing delirium to the watchers, with bad tempers, but not being necessarily evil.

 They come in a group of unknown numbers, either in a group of seven, and sometimes in groups of three. This version is mostly found in Oltenia, were these three Iele are considered the daughters of Alexander the Great, and are called Catrina, Zalina and Marina.

They are not generally considered evil genies: they resort to revenge only when they are provoked, offended, seen while they dance, when people step on the trodden ground left behind by their dance, sleep under a tree which the Iele consider as their property, drink from the springs or wells used by them. Terrible punishes are inflicted upon the ones who refuse their invitation to dance, or the ones who mimic their movements. The one who randomly hears their songs, becomes instantly mute. A main characteristic is their beautiful voices which are used to spell their listeners, just like the Mermaids from ancient Greek mythology. Invisible to humans, there are however certain moments when they can be seen by mortals, like during night, when they dance. When this happens, they abduct the victim, punishing the “guilty” one with magical spells, after they previously caused him to fall into sleep with the sounds and the vertigo of the frenetic Hora, which they dance around their victim. The ones abducted, and which had the unfortunate inspiration to learn the songs of the Iele, disappear forever without a trace.

The Iele are also believed to be agents of revenge, of God or of the Devil, having the right to avenge in the name of their “employers.

When they were called upon to act, they hounded their victims into the middle of their dance, until they died in a furor of madness or torment. In this hypostasis, the Iele are similar to the Ancient Greek Erinyes and the Roman Furies.

In the "Description Moldaviae" (1726), Dimitrie Cantemir describes the Iele as ‘’Nymphs of the air, inloved especially with young men’’. The origin of these beliefs is unknown. The name iele, is the Romanian popular word for "them" (feminine). Their real names are secret and inaccessible, and are commonly replaced with symbols based on their characteristics. There names based on epithets are: Iele, Dinse, Dragaice, Vilve, Iezme, Irodite, Rusalii, Nagode, Vântoase, Domnite, Maiestre, Frumoase, Musate, Fetele Codrului, Imparatesele Vazduhului, Zânioare, Sfinte de noapte, Soimane, Dânse, Mândre, Izme, Fecioare, Maiestre, Albe, Hale, etc. But there are also personal names which appear: Ana, Bugiana, Dumernica, Foiofia, Lacargia, Magdalina, Ruxanda, Tiranda, Trandafira, Rudeana, Ruja, Trandafira, Pascuta, Cosânzeana, Orgisceana, Lemnica, Rosia, Todosia, Sandalina, Ruxanda, Margalina, Savatina, Rujalina, etc. These names must not be used randomly, as they may be the base for dangerous enchantments. It is believed that every witch knows nine of these pseudonyms, from which she makes combinations, and who are the bases for spells.

To please the Iele, the people had dedicated to them festival days: the Rusaliile, the Stratul, the Sfredelul or Bulciul Rusaliilor, the nine days after the Easter, the Marina, the Foca, etc.

Whoever doesn’t respect these holidays, will suffer the revenge of the Iele: men and women who work during these days would be lifted in spinning vertigos, people and cattle would suffer mysterious deaths or become paralyzed and crippled, hail would fall, flooding would happen, the trees would wither, the houses would catch fire.

But the people also invented cures against the Iele, either preventive: garlic and mugwort wore around the waist, in their bosom, or hanged to their hats, the hanging the skull of a horse in a pole in front of the house, either exorcistic customs. In this category, the most important cure is the dance of Căluşari. This customs was the subject of episode of the popular TV series, The X-Files (see The X-Files (season 2))

The same common Indo-European mythology base is also suggested by the close resemblance with the Nordic Elves, youthful feminine humanoid spirits of great beauty living in forests and other natural places, underground, or in wells and springs, having as sacred tree the same maple tree, and with magical powers, having the ability to cast spells with their circle dances. The elves too leave a kind of circle were they had danced the älvdanser (elf dances) or älvringar (elf circles). Typically, this circle also consisted of a ring of small mushrooms. Arguably, Iele are the Romanian equivalent of the fays of other cultures, like of the nymphs of Greek and Roman mythology, of the vili from Slavic mythology, and of the Irish sídhe.

Other Legends in their Own Time

Baba Dochia

In Romanian mythology, Baba Dochia, or The Old Dokia, is a name originating from the Byzantine calendar which celebrates the Martyr Evdokia on 1 March. The Romanian Dokia personifies mankind's impatience in waiting for the return of spring.

Baba Dochia has a son, called Dragomir or Dragobete, who is married. Dochia ill-treats her daughter-in-law by sending her to pick up berries in the forest at the end of February. God appears to the girl as an old man and helps her in her task.

When Dochia sees the berries, she thinks that spring has come back and leaves for the mountains with her son and her goats. She is dressed with twelve lambskins, but it rains on the mountain and the skins get soaked and heavy. Dochia has to get rid of the skins and when frost comes she perishes from the cold with her goats. Her son freezes to death with a piece of ice in his mouth as he was playing the flute.

Dochia is sometimes depicted as a proud woman who teases the month of March, who in return gets its revenge by taking some days from February.

In other sources, Dochia was the daughter of Decebalus, King of the Dacians. When the Roman Emperor Trajan was conquering part of the Dacian territory, Dochia seeks refuge in the Carpathian Mountains in order to avoid marrying him. She disguises herself as a shepherd but she takes off her lambskin garments and freezes to death with her herd. She is transformed into a stream and her animals into flowers.

Days that are set aside for Baba Dochia are March 1 (for snow), March 2 (for summer), and March 3 (for harvest).

Muma Pădurii

Art from  Ethnoarta.ro

Muma Pădurii

Muma Pădurii is one of the many female monsters in the Romanian folklore (others being 'Zgripţuroaica', 'Scorpia') which together form a triumvirate similar to the Greek Gorgons.

Muma Pădurii literally means "the Mother of the Forest", though "mumă" is an archaic version of "mamă" (mother), which has a fairy-tale overtone for the Romanian reader (somewhat analogue to using the archaic pronouns like "thou" and "thy" in English). A few other such words, typically protagonists of folk-tales, have this effect.

Muma Pădurii is a spirit of the forest in a very ugly and old woman's body. Sometimes she has the ability to change her shape. She lives in a dark, dreadful, hidden little house. This (step-) mother of the forest kidnaps little children and enslaves them. In one of the popular stories, at some point, she tries to boil a little girl, alive, in a soup. However the little girl's brother outsmarts Muma Pădurii and pushes the woman-monster in the oven instead, similar the story of Hansel and Gretel. The story ends on a happy note when all kids are free to go back to their parents. Instead of saying "she's ugly", Romanians sometimes say "she looks like muma pădurii".

She is thought to attack children, and because of this, a large variety of spells (descântece in Romanian) are used against her

The Water of Life

In Romanian mythology, Apa Vie, the "Water of Life" means the water from which heroes drink so that they come back to life after healing their wounds. Apa moartă ("Dead Water" or "Water of Death") is the complement of Apa Vie. In the vast majority of the tales it has the power to heal wounds of dead bodies (but not to give life). There is a small percent of tales in which Apa moartă is a poisonous drink that kills any person who drinks it.

Moşul

Moşul (the old man), is a mysterious benevolent character, symbol of wisdom and prosperity in Romanian mythology. Some historians associate him with the ancient Dacian god Zamolxis, or with the Roman god Saturn. In 1935, after allegedly having witnessed appearances of the Moşul, the illiterate shepherd Petrache Lupu of the village Maglavit tried to establish a sort of religion based upon this.

Vântoase

Vântoase are a sort of female spirits in Romanian mythology that, in the popular beliefs, cause dust storms and powerful winds. They live in forests, in the air, in deep lakes, and use a special wagon for travelling. They are also believed to be able to attack children, and the only protection against them is the mysterious "grass of the winds". In other legends, they are believed to be servants of God.

Vâlva

The Vâlve are a sort of female spirits, which in romanian mythology are believed to walk in the night over the hilltops. The main types, the Vâlve Albe (white) are considered beneficial, but the Vâlve Negre (dark) are considered evil.   Some types are believed sometimes to look human-like, especially when they came to protect villages from a storm, or as simple shadows, or as a black cat, etc. They also have the ability to change their shape.
The various types of Vâlve include:

• Vâlva Apei, which is considered as a sort of guardian of the water sources, fountains.
• Vâlva Bucatelor, protector of the poor people, and of the crops.
• Vâlva Băilor, defender and protector of mines and tunnels.When the "Vâlva" leaves the mine, it is considered that the ore has finished.
• Vâlva Banilor, protector of the money.
• Vâlva Comorilor, protector of treasures, but she can also signal the place of the hidden treasure to the chosen ones.
• Vâlva Pădurii, similar to Muma Padurii.
• Vâlva Ciumei, controlling plague and other disease.
• Vâlva Zilelor, protector of the days, one for each day of the week.
• Vâlva Cetătilor, defender of ancient ruins.

 

The Undead Wander at Night Romania's familiarity with vampires goes back long before Bram Stoker's novel, with burial practices today still guarding against vampirism and reports still being filed of the evil spirits.

Image:  Eduard Schaal

Romania's folklore never really considered a single Dracula type figure.  It is actually much worse.  According to beliefs alive and well in villages throughout Romania, vampires are actually fairly common, being the disgruntled undead souls of people who were pretty nasty in real life too! 

Although Dracula is a work of fiction, it does contain some historical references. The historical connections with the novel and how much Stoker really knew about the history is a matter of conjecture and debate.

Strigoi: The Romanian Undead

In Romanian mythology, strigoi (same form singular or plural) are the evil souls of the dead rising from the tombs (or living) that transform into an animal or phantomatic apparition during the night to haunt the countryside, troubling whoever it encounters.

A strigoaică (singular feminine form) is a witch. Strigoi are also known as "moroi" in some parts, especially rural areas. They are close relatives of the werewolves known as "pricolici" or "vârcolaci", the latest also meaning "goblin" at times.

These names are derived from strigă, which in Romanian meant "witch" or "barn owl", cognate with Italian strega, which means "witch", and descended from the Latin word strix, for a shrieking vampiric bird. Strigoi viu (plural: Strigoi vii) is a living vampiric witch.

Strigoi mort (plural: Strigoi morţi) is a dead (undead) vampire. They are most often associated with vampires or zombies. According to Romanian mythology a strigoi has ginger hair, blue eyes and two hearts.

By Slovenian mythology a "štirga" is most likely a woman but there are exceptions when she is a male. One of the ways for ending her powers is to expose her to public after witnessing her powers. Folklore superstitions also says she can't be killed unless killed while she is feasting on the lifeforce of the prey.

The Moroi Variety of Vampire

A Moroi (same form in plural) is a type of vampire or ghost in Romanian folklore. A female Moroi is called a Moroaică (pl. Moroaice). In some versions, a Moroi is a phantom of a dead person which leaves the grave to draw energy from the living.   Moroi are often synonymous with these other figures in Romanian folklore: Strigoi (another type of vampire), Vârcolac (werewolf or goblin), or Pricolici (werewolf).   They are also sometimes referred to in modern myth as the live-born offspring of two strigoi.

In fiction, based on the folklore though with a number of modifications, the name Moroi is sometimes spelled as Moroii. Fictional treatments in general make a clear and consistent distinction between a Strigoi and a Moroi (or "Moroii"), the former being an undead vampire, the latter a living vampire. However, in Romanian folklore the distinction is not always clear, and a Moroi may also refer to a phantom-like figure.

May We Present Vlad Dracul

Following the publication of "In Search of Dracula" by Radu Florescu and Raymond McNally in 1972, the supposed connections between the historical Vlad III Dracul of Wallachia and Bram Stoker's fictional Dracula attracted popular attention.

During the six-year reign of Vlad III (1456–1462), "Vlad the Impaler" is said to have killed from 20,000 to 40,000 European civilians (political rivals, criminals, and anyone else he considered "useless to humanity"), mainly by using his favourite method of impaling them on a sharp pole. 

It should be noted, however, that the main source of Romanian history from this time is records by German settlers in neighbouring Transylvania, who had frequent clashes with Vlad for political and economic reasons, and may be somewhat biased. Vlad is revered as a folk hero by Romanians for driving off invading Turks with his brutal tactics; his impaled victims are said to have included as many as 100,000 Ottoman troops.

The Roots of the Dracula Name

Historically, the name "Dracula" is derived from a secret fraternal order of knights called the Order of the Dragon, founded by King Sigismund of Hungary (who became the Holy Roman Emperor in 1410) to uphold Christianity and defend the Empire against the Ottoman Turks. Vlad II Dracul, father of Vlad III, was admitted to the Order around 1431 because of his bravery in fighting the Turks.

From 1431 onward Vlad II wore the emblem of the order and later, as ruler of Wallachia, his coinage bore the dragon symbol. People believed the dragon to be a devil, thus they called him Vlad Dracul (Vlad the Devil). In archaic Romanian the ending -ulea meant "the son of". Vlad III thus became Vlad Draculea, "The Son of the Devil".

Stoker's Dracula was Hungarian

In the novel,  Dracula claims to be a Szekler (Székely in Hungarian) - "We Szekelys have a right to be proud..." - whereas Vlad is clearly an ethnic Vlach. Finally, no one compared Vlad to a vampire in his lifetime. Being a descendant of the Dacian "Wolf People" who was sometimes called a "Great Berserker" by the Germans, it is possible that some associated Vlad more with a werewolf than a vampire.

In writing Dracula, Stoker may also have drawn upon stories about the Irish nymph-like sídhe — some of which feature blood-drinking women — and the Dracula legend as he created it and as it has been portrayed in films and television shows ever since may be a compound of various influences; many of Stoker's biographers and literary critics have found strong similarities to an earlier Irish writer, Sheridan le Fanu's, classic of the vampire genre, Carmilla.

It has been suggested Stoker was influenced by the history of Countess Elizabeth Bathory, who was born, like Dracula, in Hungary. It is believed that Bathory tortured and killed up to 700 servant girls in order to bathe in or drink their blood. She believed that the blood of the girls preserved her youth, which may explain why Dracula appeared younger after feeding.

Dracula Today

After the 1989 Revolution, a tourist industry sprang up in Transylvania (and, to a lesser extent, in Wallachia). However, Romanians have mixed feelings about fictionalising one of their national heroes into a vampire.

Historical places connected to Vlad Ţepeş are publicised under a Dracula theme catering largely, but not entirely, to foreign markets. Bran Castle, which has only a very tangential connection with the historical Vlad Ţepeş, now exaggerates that connection and promotes itself as "Dracula's Castle".

In Bucharest, a dungeon-themed disco called "Impaler" caters to a mostly Romanian crowd.  It's located in the basement of a former inn immediately adjacent to the Curtea Veche, or Old Court, which was the site of Vlad Ţepeş' castle.

The well-preserved medieval town of Sighişoara, Vlad Ţepeş' birthplace, seriously considered building a Dracula theme park on the edge of town, but in the end it was decided that such a site would cheapen the beauty and history of the medieval city and the plan was blocked. The park was then to have been built close to Bucharest (the capital, which is nowhere near Transylvania) but plans have subsequently been scrapped.