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Early Romanian History:  400BC - 1400AD

's ancient history in the millenia before the Romans arrived on it's borders involves the slow coalescence of the Dacian, Gaeto-Dacian, and Thracian peoples from around the high Carpathians, the central Transilvanian plateau, and the sweeping Wallachian plains to the Danube and across the Danube into Dobrogea, and modern-day Bulgaria. 

Ancient History of Romania

The Early Dacians

Dacian Kingdom, during the rule of Burebista, 82 BC

Herodotus gives an account of the Agathyrsi, who lived in Transilvania during the 5th century BC.

Dacia, 82BC Centred in what is now Transilvania, the Dacian Kingdom saw it's greatest borders under King Burebista.

Dacian Remains and Earthworks Semi-urban dwellings at Sarmizegetusa

A kingdom of Dacia was in existence at least as early as the beginning of the 2nd century BC under a king, Oroles. Under Burebista, the greatest king of Dacia and a contemporary of Julius Caesar, the Dacian kingdom reached its maximum extent. The area now constituting Transilvania was the political centre of Dacia.

The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy.

However they were by no means subdued, and in later times seized every opportunity of crossing the frozen Danube during winter and ravaging the Roman cities in the recently acquired Roman province Moesia.

The Dacians built several important fortified cities, among them Sarmizegetusa, near today's Hunedoara.

The Inevitable Romans Arrive

The Roman Empire expansion in the Balkans brought the Dacians into open conflict with Rome. During the reign of Decebalus, the Dacians were engaged in several wars with the Romans (from 85 to 89). After two severe reverses, the Romans gained an advantage, but were obliged to make peace owing to the defeat of Domitian by the Marcomanni. As a result, the Dacians were left independent, but had to pay an annual tribute to the Emperor.

In 101-102 Traian began a military campaign (Dacian Wars) against the Dacians which included the siege of the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa and the occupation of part of the country. Decebalus was left as a client king under a Roman protectorate.

Between AD 101 and 106, the emperor Trajan led two military campaigns with as many as 100,000 soldiers. Trajan was ultimately victorious and Dacia was declared a province of the Roman Empire.

Three years later, the Dacians rebelled and destroyed the Roman troops in Dacia. The second campaign (105-106) ended with the suicide of Decebalus and the conversion of parts of Dacia into the Roman province Dacia Traiana. The history of the Dacian Wars is given in Dio Cassius, but the best commentary upon it is the famous Column of Traian in Rome.
 

The Dacians are Revolting!

Dacians were divided into two classes: the aristocracy (tarabostes) and the common people (comati). Following his subjugation, Decebalus complied with Rome for a time, but was soon inciting revolt among tribes against them and pillaging Roman colonies across the Danube. True to the intrepid and optimistic nature he had become renowned for, Traian rallied his forces once more in 106 for a second war against the Kingdom of Dacia.

Unlike the first conflict, the second war involved several skirmishes that proved costly to the Roman military, who, facing large numbers of allied tribes, struggled to attain a decisive victory. Eventually, however, Rome prevailed and took Dacia. An assault against the capital Sarmizegetusa proved successful and it was burned to the ground. Decebalus fled, but soon committed suicide rather than face capture.

The battle for Sarmizegetusa Regia took place at the beginning of the summer of 106 BC with the participation of the ADRIUTIX II and FLAVIA FELIX legions and of a detachment (vexillatio) from the FERRATA VI Legion. The Dacians repelled the first attack, but the water pipes from the Dacian capital were destroyed. The city was on fire, all of the pillars of the sacred sanctuaries were cut down, and the entire fortification system was destroyed.

But the war went on, and after the treason of Bacilis (who was a confidant of the Dacian king), the Romans found Decebal's treasure of over 150,000kg of gold and 300,000kg of silver in the Sargesia river. The last battle with the army of the Dacian king took place at Porolissum (Moigrad).

"The Deeds of the Hungarians", c. 1200 Gesta Hungarorum, by Anonymous

The Dacians (Lat. Daci, Gr. Dákai) were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania) and parts of Moesia (see map below). They spoke the Dacian language, which has not been placed with certainty, but has links to Thracian and Albanian. The first mention of them is in Roman sources, but classical authors are unanimous in considering the Dacians a branch of the Getae, a Thracian people known from Greek writings. Strabo specified that the Daci are the Getae who lived in the area towards the Pannonian plain (west of Transylvania), while the Getae proper gravitated towards the Black Sea coast (Scythia Minor).

Roman Dacia, c. 130AD From the Olt River through the Pannonian Plains, including the Carpathian basin to north of the Danube

The Three Dacias, c. 200AD Showing regions of Roman control. With the Governor in Sarmezegetusa, the administrative seats in the provinces of Porolissum, Apulum and Sucideva managed defense and taxation for their regions.

Want to know more about the Dacians?

King Decebal:  Either That Emperor Goes or I do!

The Dacians had a very powerful custom which encouraged them not to be afraid of death. This is why it was said that they left for war merrier than for any other journey. In his retirement in the mountains, Decebal is followed by the Roman cavalry lead by Tiberius Claudius Maximus. The Dacian religion of Zalmoxis admitted suicide as a last resort by those who were in pain and misery.

The Dacians who listened to Decebal's last speech spread his words and many committed suicide. Decebel retreated to the mountains and in the pristine woods sought the means to prepare the recommencement of the battle and to seek revenge.

But the Roman cavalry followed him without rest. They almost caught him, and at that point the great Decebal meets his destiny by ending his life. The great scene of his death may be found on Traian's Column in Rome, as well as in the National History Museum in Bucharest.

The Romans exploited the gold mines in the province extensively, building access roads and forts to protect them, like Abrud.

The region developed a strong infrastructure and economy, based on agriculture, cattle farming and mining. Colonists from Thracia, Moesia, Macedonia, Gaul, Syria, and other Roman provinces were brought in to settle the land, developing cities like Apulum (now Alba Iulia) and Napoca (now Cluj Napoca) into municipiums and colonias.

The Dacian Provinces, 129 - 270

In 129AD, under Hadrian, Dacia was divided into Dacia Superior and Inferior, the former comprising Transylvania, the latter Little Walachia. The Roman hold on the country was still tenuous, however. Conscious of the difficulty of retaining it, Hadrian contemplated its abandonment and was only deterred by consideration for the safety of the numerous Roman settlers.

In an attempt to bring greater governmental authority to the province, Marcus Aurelius divided it into the three provinces (tres Daciae) of Porolissensis, Apulensis and Maluensis.

The tres Daciae had a common capital, Ulpia Traiana (Sarmizegethusa), while other major cities and military centers were Drobeta, Tibiscum, Apulum, Napoca and Porolissum. The three Dacias enjoyed a common government, which discussed provincial affairs, formulated complaints and controlled taxation; but in other respects they were practically independent provinces, each under an ordinary procurator, subordinate to a governor of consular rank.

The Dacians rebelled frequently, with the biggest rebellion occurring at the death of Traian. Sarmatians and Burs were allowed to settle inside Dacia Traiana after repeated clashes with the Roman administration. During the 3rd century increasing pressure from the free Dacians (Carpians) and Visigoths forced the Romans to abandon exposed Dacia Traiana.

A Farewell to Rome:  270AD

After the Romans:  Gepids, Goths, Huns and Avars

In 271, the Roman emperor Aurelian abandoned Dacia Traiana and reorganised a new Dacia Aureliana inside former Moesia Superior. The abandonment of Dacia Traiana by the Romans is mentioned by Eutropius in his BREVIARIVM LIBER NONVS.

The province of Dacia formed by Traian beyond the Danube, was abandoned by the Romans as Illyricum and Moesia had been depopulated. Roman citizens removed from Dacia were settled in the interior of Moesia, calling that Dacia which now divides the two Moesiae, and which is on the right hand of the Danube as it runs to the sea, whereas Dacia was previously on the left.

Germanic Tribes in Transilvania

The first wave of the Great Migrations, (270 to 420 AD) brought the influence of migratory tribes, especially the Germanic tribes.

In the last decades of the second century, the early Goths from the Wiebark culture to the north (in today's Belarus and Ukraine) moved southward with some extending into Bugeac in lower Bessarabia and as far south as northern Dobrogea and along the lower Prut and Şiret Rivers. 

Another branch of these migrants from the north are known in Romania as the Sântana de Mureş culture (also used less is the Romanian word "Cerneahov", the approximation of "Chernyakhov" in Ukrainian), settling into the areas of today's Moldova and into the eastern half of Transilvania.

A second wave of Germanic migrants arrived in the mid-third century, and most of them settled to the east of Moldova into the Chernyakhov area.   Most of the population appears to have been Sarmatians who lived between Dobrogea and the Sea of Azov, as well as Slavs.

The Visigoth Kingdom

The Visigoths established a kingdom north of Danube and Transilvania between 270-380. The region was known by Romans as Guthiuda and includes the region between Alutus (Olt) and Ister (Danube) too. It is unclear whether they used the term Kaukaland (land of the mountains) for Transilvania proper or the whole Carpathians.

The Visigoths were unable to preserve the region's Roman era infrastructures. The goldmines of Transilvania were ruined and unused during the Early Middle Age. Ulfilas had carried (around 340) Homoean Arianism to the Goths living in Guthiuda with such success that the Visigoths and other Germanic tribes became staunch Arians. When the Goths entered the Roman Empire (around 380) and founded successor-kingdoms, most had been Arian Christians.

The New Power of the Huns

In 380 a new power reached Transilvania, the Huns. They drove back every Germanic people from the Carpathian Basin except the Gepids. The Alans, Vandals, Quads left the region toward the Roman Empire. The Huns extended their rule over Transilvania after 420AD. After the disintegration of Attila's empire, Transilvania was inhabited by the remnants of various Hunnic, and a Germanic tribe, the Gepids.

Ardaric was the most renowned king of the Gepids. According to Jordanes, he was one of the most trusted adherents of Attila the Hun, who "prized him above all the other chieftains". Although he was "famed for his loyalty and wisdom", Ardaric led the rebellion against Attila's sons and routed them in the Battle of Nedao, thus ending the Huns's supremacy in Europe.

The Transilvanian Gepids remained with their semi-independent status inside the Kingdom of Gepids, but this relative autonomy came to an end in the late 6th century.   They reached the zenith of their power after 537, settling in the rich area around Belgrade. In 546 the Byzantine Empire allied themselves with the Lombards to expel the Gepids from this region. In 552 the Gepids suffered a disastrous defeat in the Battle of Asfeld and were finally conquered by the Avars in 567.

 In fact the Gepids were exterminated from the entire Transilvanian region. We know only about slight Gepid remnants (cemeteries) in the Banat region after 600.   In Transilvania we have no traces which indicate a Gepidic continuity after 567.

The Avars and Slavs

By 568, the Avars under the capable leadership of their Kagan, Bayan, established in the Carpathian Basin an empire that lasted for 250 years. During this 250 years the Slavs were allowed to settle inside Transilvania and they started to clear the Carpathian's virgin forests.

The Avars meet their demise with the rise of Charlemagne's Frankish empire. After a fierce seven year war and civil war between the Kagan and Yugurrus which lasted from 796-803 A.D., the Avars were defeated. The Transilvanian Avars were, subjugated by the Bulgars under Khan Krum at the beginning of the 9th century and Transilvania, along with eastern Pannonia, was incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire.

Medieval Romania

Magyars in Transilvania (10-11th century)

In 862 Prince Ratislav of Great Moravia rebelled against his lord, and, after hiring Magyar troops, won his independence; this is the first time when Magyar expeditionary troops entered the Carpathian Basin. After a devastating Bulgar and Pecheneg attack the Magyar tribes crossed the Carpathians and occupied the entire basin without significant resistance.

According to the prime Gesta Hungarorum from the 11th century they entered Transilvania first, where Prince Almos was killed: "Almus in patria Erdelw occisus est, non enim potuit in Pannoniam introire". According to some archaeological findings near Turda (Golds of Prince Berthold of Bavaria) Transilvanian Magyars also participated in several raids against the West, Italy, or the Balkans. Although the defeat in the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 stopped the Magyar raids against western Europe, the raids on the Balkan Peninsula continued for another decade.

The history of Transilvania during the Early Middle Ages is difficult to ascertain due to the scarcity of reliable written or archaeological evidence. Historians disagree about the reliability of one of the most important primary sources, the Gesta Hungarorum. There are two major conflicting theories concerning whether or not the Romanized Dacian population (one of the ancestors of the Romanians) continued to live in Transilvania after the withdrawal of the Romans, and therefore whether or not the Romanians were present in Transilvania at the time of the Great Migrations, particularly at the time of the Magyar migration.  Conflicting hypotheses are often used to back competing nationalistic claims by Hungarian and Romanian chauvinists.

After conquering Transilvania, the Hungarians maintained the pre-Hungarian Slavic system of Voivode and local Knez rulers. This system re-emerged a couple of centuries later when the Vlachs from Transilvania founded the countries of Moldavia and Wallachia to the East and respectively South of the Carpathian mountains. Also several centuries later Bulgaria was to create a second empire of Slavs and Vlachs south of the Danube.

Late Middle Ages: Transilvania as part of the Kingdom of Hungary

In 1000 Vajk, chieftain of the Magyars swore allegiance to Rome, and became King Stephen I of Hungary, adopting Catholicism and bringing about the Christianization of the Magyars. Stephen's maternal uncle Gyula, the ruler of Transilvania, antagonised the new king by giving refuge to his opponents. Gyula also maintained control of the economically important Transilvanian salt mines.

In 1003, Stephen led an army into Transilvania and Gyula surrendered without a fight. This made possible the organisation of the Transilvanian Catholic episcopacy which was finished in 1009 when the bishop of Ostia as the legate of the Pope paid a visit to Stephen; together they approved the division of the dioceses and their boundaries.

The Székelys, a Hungarian-speaking community of uncertain origin, may have entered Transilvania before the Magyars conquered the Carpathian basin. By the 12th century the Székelys were established in eastern and south-eastern Transilvania as border guards.

The Colonists in Eastern Hungary and Siebenbürgen

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the areas in the south and northeast were settled by German colonists called (then and now) Saxons. Siebenbürgen, the German name for Transilvania, derives from the seven principal fortified towns founded by these Transilvanian Saxons. The German influence became more marked when, early in the 13th century, King Andrew II of Hungary called on the Teutonic Knights to protect Transilvania in the Burzenland from the Cumans. After the Order began expanding their territory outside of Transilvania and acting independently, Andrew expelled the knights in 1225.

In 1241 three great Mongol armies invaded Hungary, two of which attacked Transilvania. The first army led by Kadan Khan crossed the Carpathians at the Rodna pass and attacked the Saxon-populated town Rodna, Bistriţa, Cluj-Napoca, and the Mezőség region. The other army led by Bogutaj Khan marched into the country at the Oituz pass and ravaged southern Transilvania. A separate Mongol division destroyed the western Cumans near the Şiret river in the Carpathian region and annihilated the Cuman Bishopric of Milcov. Estimates of population decline in Transilvania owing to the Mongol invasion range from 15-20% to 50%.

The Western and Eastern Cumans converted to Roman Catholicism, and, after they were defeated by the Mongols, looked for refuge in central Hungary; Erzsebet, a Cumanian princess, married Stephen V of Hungary in 1254.

The administration of Transilvania was in the hands of a voivod appointed by the King. The word voivod or voievod first appeared in historical documents in 1193. Prior to that, the term ispán was used for the chief official of the County of Alba. The whole historical territory of Transilvania came under the rule of the voievod after 1263, when the functions of Count of Szolnok (Doboka) and Count of Alba were terminated. The voivod controlled seven comitatus. According to Chronica Pictum, Transilvania's first voivod was Zoltán Erdoelue, King Stephen's relative.

The three most important dignitaries of the 14th century were the voivod, the Bishop of Transilvania and the Abbot of Kolozsmonostor (outskirt of present day Cluj-Napoca).

The Estate System

Transilvania was organized according to the system of Estates. Transilvanian Estates were privileged groups or universities (the central power acknowledged some collective or communal "liberties") with power and influence in socio-economic and political life; nevertheless they were organized according to certain ethnic criteria as well.

As in the rest of the Hungarian kingdom, the first Estate was the aristocracy (lay and ecclesiastic), ethnically heterogeneous, but undergoing a process of homogenization around its Hungarian nucleus. The basic document that granted privileges to the entire aristocracy was the Golden Bull issued by king Andrew II in 1222. The other Estates were Saxons, Székelys and Romanians, all with an ethnic and ethno-linguistic basis. The Saxons, who had settled in southern Transilvania in the 12th- 13th centuries, were granted privileges in 1224 by the Golden Bull, also called the Andreanum. Székelys and Romanians were not regarded as newcomers (colonists) in Transilvania, thus they were not granted general but partial privileges.

While Székelys kept on consolidating these privileges and extended them over the entire ethnic group, Romanians had difficulty keeping their old privileges in certain areas (terrae Vlachorum or districtus Valachicales) and ended up by losing the rank of a distinct Estate. Nevertheless, in the 13th-14th centuries, when the king or the voivod summoned the general assembly of Transilvania (congregatio), this was attended by the four Estates: noblemen, Saxons, Székelys, Romanians (Universis nobilibus, Saxonibus, Syculis et Olachis in partibus Transiluanis).

Hungarian Rule

In 1293 AD King Endre of Hungary adopted a resolution in which universos olachos in possessionibus nobilium vel quoromlibet aliorum residenes ad predium nostrum regale Scekes vocatum ordinasemus revocari reduci et etiam compelli.

It should be mentioned that Partibus infidelium (Ungrovalachia) was under direct Hungarian rule (ut vos cum vestris mercimoniis et quibuslibet rebus inter Bozam (Bodza/Buzau) et Prahov a loco videlice ubi fluvius Ilontha (Ilonka/Ialomita) vocatus in Danubium usque locum ub fluvius Zereth (Szeret/Siret) nominatus similiter in ipsum Danubium cadunt transire possitis libere et secure) until 1330.

The territory between the Olt river (North to Transilvanian Alps) and the present day Muntenia formed a principality ruled by the Holly Crown. These parts represented the basis for the so called Univeris Olcahis. After Muntenia became an independent Principality under Woywode Basarab the Romanians have lost their independent status and privileges however Tara Oltului remained an estate of the Wallachian Prince.

Romanians Excluded

Gradually, after 1366 Romanians lost their status as an Estate (Universitas Valachorum) and were excluded from Transilvania's assemblies. The main reason was religion: during Louis I's proselytizing campaign, privileged status was deemed incompatible with that of "schismatic" in a state endowed with an apostolic mission by the Holy Seed: through the Decree of Turda/Torda, in 1366, the king redefines nobility in terms of appurtenance to the Roman Catholic Church, thus excluding the Eastern Orthodox schismatic Romanian.

After 1366 the nobility status is determined not only by ownership over land and people, but also by the possession of a royal donation certificate. Since Romanians' social elite, chiefly made up by aldermen (iudices) or ‘knezes' (kenezii), who ruled over their villages according to the old law of the land (ius valachicum), managed to a small extent to procure writs of donation, they came to be expropriated. Lacking land property and/or the official status of owner and being officially excluded from privileges as schismatic, the Romanian elite was not able any more to form an Estate and participate in the country's assemblies

Hungarian minority in Romania

The Romans in Dacia

An Interview with King Michael, 1990

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